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Rather though than this being an Israelite influence in Kashmir at the time of Moses, it was more likely a Jewish influence about a millennium later, consequent upon the Babylonian Captivity, with a subsequent Jewish influx into Persia, Afghanistan and Kashmir. Perhaps this immigrant people, like the Afghanis who Kersten says (p. 56) "trace their lineage back to King Saul of Israel and call themselves "Ben-i-Israel"," were in fact scattered members of Saul's tribe of Benjamin taken captive from Judah. The Book of Esther (11:2) indeed records Benjaminites living in Persia's capital of Susa; Queen Esther herself being one of them. Apropos to this situation. Kersten tells on p. 58:
The inhabitants of Kashmir are different from the other peoples of India in every respect. Their way of life, their behaviour, their morals, their character, their clothing, their language, customs and habits are all of a type that might be described as typically Israelite. Like present-day Israelis, the Kashmiris do not use fat for frying and baking: they use only oil. Most Kashmiris like boiled fish, called fari, eaten in remembrance of the time before their Exodus from Egypt 'We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely' (Numbers 11:5).
Butchers' knives in Kashmir are made in the half-moon shape typical of the Israelites, and even the rudders of the boat people (Hanjis) are of the similarly typical heart shape.
The men wear distinctive caps on their heads. The clothing of the old women of Kashmir (pandtanis) is very similar to that of Jewish women, and like them they also wear headscarves and laces. Like young Jewish girls, the girls of Kashmir dance in two facing columns with linked arms, moving together forwards and backwards to the rhythm. They call their songs rof .
After bearing a child, a woman of Kashmir observes forty days' seclusion for purification; this, too, is a Jewish custom (Leviticus 12). Many of the older graves in Kashmir are aligned in the east-west orientation, whereas Islamic graves normally point north-south. A great number of such graves are to be found in Haran, Rajpura, Syed Bladur, Sahib, Kukar Nagh and Awantipura. In the cemetery at Bijbihara, the place where the bath and stone of Moses are located. There is also an old grave that has an inscription in Hebrew.
The Flood
Moses' burial is thought by the locals to have occurred in Kashmir in that defined region that we discussed earlier in connection with Mount Nebo. And Solomon's Temple is said to have been built there [50]. P. 49: "Kashmir is still known among the local Muslim population as Bagh-i-Suleiman, the 'Garden of Solomon'."
As for the Flood, since more than 250 versions of it have been recorded worldwide - indicating a common human ancestry (which is supported genetically, via mitachondrial DNA) - it is to be expected that India would also have its own version. Indeed it is given in the Vedas (the Indian equivalent of the Old Testament). Thus Kersten (p. 52):
The gods had decided to cleanse the world with an enormous flood, but Manu, the great seer and sage, was to be exempted in order to preserve the human race. The god Vishnu thereupon took on an earthly incarnation for the first time as an avatar, in the form of the fish Matsya, and revealed himself to Manu on the bank of a river. The fish warned Manu that the earth was soon to be submerged, and that everyone living on it would perish. He ordered the sage to build a ship to carry himself and his family, as well as the seven great Rishis (seers), the seed of every plant, and one pair of each kind of animal. And he was also to take the Vedas, to ensure that the sacred texts were preserved.
Just as the construction of the ship was completed, the great rains began, the rivers burst their banks, and Vishnu as the fish positioned himself at the prow of the boat, his horn above the water. Manu fastened a rope to the horn, and the fish pulled the ship safely through the raging elements until they found shelter on the peaks of the Himalayan mountains (cf Genesis 6-8).
The Vedic Flood lasted 40 days - a duration that coincides exactly with that described in the account of the Flood in Genesis.
The Indian account distinguishes between the hero's family and seven sages; whereas according to the Genesis account, Noah's saved family members numbered seven (with Noah being the eighth).
The Indian hero takes on board also the sacred Vedic texts; just as Jewish tradition has it that Noah took on board the Ark the sacred records of his ancestors (toledot).
In one account of the Flood in Polynesia "the hero is", according to Kersten (p. 52), "even called Noa".
CHAPTER THREE: BUDDHA AS JESUS
Childhood of Jesus
Before going on to record Kersten's amazing comparisons between Jesus and the Buddha, I should like to pause for a moment to touch upon a fascinating matter that the author has raised regarding the Nativity of Jesus and the Magi's star, on the one hand, and the Tibetan practice of locating child reincarnations of deceased Buddhist Dalai Lamas on the other.
In his 'Who Were the Three Wise Men?' (Chapter 4), Kersten firstly concludes on p. 63 that: "At this distance in time it is well-nigh impossible to prove that the Magi came from either Persia or from India". Then he introduces his fascinating new twist:
Yet it is absolutely amazing how much the story of the three wise men corresponds with accounts of the methods by which reincarnations of great Buddhist dignitaries are located in Tibet after their demise, even to this day. The way in which such a search is carried out, following ancient and traditional ritual, is described in the present Dalai Lama's own accounts of his 'discovery' as a little boy, and in the book by the Austrian Heinrich Harrer, who spent seven years at the court of the god-king in Lhasa.
And on p. 64, Kersten goes on to write regarding the 1937 search for the child of destiny:
Most important to these preparations were the pronouncements of the astrologers, without whose calculations no significant moves could be made at all. At last, in 1937, various expeditions were dispatched from Lhasa to seek out the holy child according to the heavenly omens, in the direction indicated. Each group included wise and worthy lamas of highly distinguished status in the theocracy. In addition to their servants, each group took costly gifts with them
.
Is this yet another far eastern tradition that has arisen from a biblical prototype, namely the Gospel account of the Magi's visit to the Christ-child in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:1-11)?
Healing Wounds in our World
More recent history teaches this lesson: In South Africa, after apartheid ended, rather than merely locking up or executing perpetrators, the government decided to implement "Truth and Reconciliation" commissions. In these forums, the organizers and perpetrators of apartheid were allowed to publicly confess their crimes. In return, their victims and the victims' families/friends were allowed to publicly express the pain and suffering they had experienced. At this point the wrong doer was publicly forgiven. - This was all done to avoid further bloodshed and revenge that all observed was an endless cycle which ultimately destroys both parties involved. - We see the lack of this approach and understanding at the root of continuing challenges in Iraq and Afghanistan, in the broader Middle East, in Israel and Ghaza, in the former Yugoslavia, Russia and the various countries in Africa like Rwanda, Cameroon, the Congo and Sudan. The list seems endless. The cure has been patterned in South Africa. Government leaders could use that to heal many wounds.
Buddha and Jesus: A Comparison Muslims Messiah
This vital section, so important a link with my previous article, is to be found beginning on p. 94, in Kersten's Chapter 5. Kersten, who has accepted the standard chronological view that Buddha pre-dated Jesus by some 500 years, has also had to conclude that the earliest Christian communities - such as the Essenes in Palestine and the Therapeuts in Alexandria (I shall discuss these in my Chapter Five) - were actually ancient Buddhist communities. Indeed, we shall find that the resemblances are quite extraordinary. From these supposed Buddhist communities, John the Baptist, Jesus and his followers supposedly acquired their own teachings.
Having starkly contrasted whom he calls the "bloodthirsty and vengeful deity" of the Old Testament's Semitic tribes with the "totally different God" who has illuminated "the philosophy behind Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, as relayed by Matthew's Gospel", Kersten asks: "Where did Jesus learn the precepts he proclaimed in the Sermon on the Mount?" He could not have learned them from his own part of the world, since: "No other religion of the eastern Mediterranean area lays claim to the magnanimously loving Grace preached by Jesus". Typically Kersten will turn to Buddhism for his clue: "A possible answer to this question may be found in early (Pre-Christian) [sic] Buddhist scriptures like the Lalitavistara, which is the Buddhist text that exhibits the greatest number of parallels with the tradition of the Gospels. Written in Sanskrit, the Lalitavistara is a biography of the Buddha that is linked in time and culture with the Sarvastivadins. Its most ancient sections, deriving from the Hinayana, date from the third century BC, although the full version in its present form was compiled in the centuries either side of Christ's birth, and was included in the canon of the Mahayana by edict of the Council of Haran [Harwan] in the first century AD significantly, some years before the compilation of the New Testament.
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My comments: Kersten, like so many, omits to recall that the supposedly "totally different God" of the Sermon on the Mount with whom Jesus so intimately identified himself, was the same God who would return to the Jews, in 70 AD, blood vengeance for their cry against the Christ, 'His blood be upon us and upon our children' (Matthew 27:25).
And, regarding the date of the Gospels, expert linguist Jean Carmignac - greatly experienced in scriptural translations due to his many years of translating the Dead Sea Scrolls - has found that the Gospels in Greek can easily be translated back into what he insists was a Semitic (Hebrew) original (The Birth of the Synoptics, Paris 1987). Thus he re-dates the New Testament considerably earlier than according to the kind of conventional estimates that Kersten would follow.
Kersten is entirely right though about the parallels that exist between the Buddhist text and the Gospels. I am now going to follow him at length:
In the Lalitavistara, Buddha says:
The knowledge of the truth, the attainment of Nirvana this is the supreme blessing. [0100] Through love alone can hate be vanquished; through perfect love evil may be overcome
Speak no harsh words to your neighbour, and he will respond to you in like terms.
A merchant from Sunapaortha asked the Enlightened One to teach him. 'People are violent,' said the Reborn. 'If they offended you, how would you respond?'
The merchant shrugged his shoulders. 'I would make no reply at all to them', he said.
'And if they hit you?'
'I would not react either.'
'And if they kill you?'
The merchant smiled. 'Death, Master, is no evil. Some even desire it!'
In the same way, Jesus enjoined his disciples: 'Whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.'
Buddha said to his favourite disciple Ananda, 'Believe in me, Ananda! All those who believe in me will come to great joy.' Christ likewise instructed his disciples to believe in him, and not to waver in this faith.
On another occasion, the Buddha described the giving of alms as 'a seed sown on good ground, which brings forth fruit in plenty.' He also declared that 'Food that is eaten does not destroy a person
but the taking of a life, stealing, lying, adultery, and even thinking of doing these things, can certainly lead to a person's destruction,' And 'A man buries a treasure in a deep pit. But a treasure hidden away like this can be of no use to him. Now a treasure of love for one's neighbour, of piety and of moderation that is a treasure that no thief can ever steal.' And 'Even when the heavens crash to the earth, even when the world is swallowed up and destroyed, even then, Ananda, the words of the Buddha remain true.' And in another place the Enlightened One referred to himself as 'a shepherd full of wisdom' who bends down to redirect those of his flock who are wandering towards the abyss.
All these sayings of Buddha are strongly reminiscent of Jesus' sayings, as contained in the Gospels
The Temptation
Kersten continues:
After he was baptized by John, Jesus retired into the desert, where he was subjected to temptation by Satan. Five hundred years earlier [sic], Buddha too was subjected to a series of temptations by Mara, the 'lord of sensory pleasures', as the Lalitavistara narrates. To Siddhartha [the Buddha] in the middle of his fasting and meditation Mara offered delicious dishes and showed him the riches and distractions of the world, but the contemplative's concentration was not in the least disturbed. Jesus underwent the same test in the desert, with the same result.
Zoroaster experienced the same. This shows us that Zoroaster is merely an eastern composite of Jesus and Moses (see Zoroastrian parallels with Moses in my Chapter Two).
Kersten continues with further stunning - even breathtaking - comparisons:
Jesus commanded his disciples to go out and proclaim the message of joy to the House of Israel. Like the Hindu [105] Sannyasis, the disciples were to take no gold or silver with them, nor any second set of shoes or clothing.
Five hundred years before Jesus [sic], the Buddha used the same command in nominating his first disciples the noble thirty as Jesus was to use later [sic]: 'Come, follow me!" The disciples renounced everything on the spot and followed him, just as Peter, Andrew and the sons of Zebedee were to follow Jesus so long afterwards [sic].
And like Jesus, the Buddha spoke in parables. Jesus once described how a blind man cannot lead another blind man without both falling into a ditch. In a similar passage the Buddha says: 'When blind people hold on to each other in a line, the one at the front sees nothing, the one in the middle sees nothing, and the one at the end sees nothing!' There is also an equivalent to the parable of the Prodigal Son in the Buddhist scriptures.
Other parables told by Jesus are represented not among the sayings of Buddha but in pre-Christian [sic] Hindu traditions and proverbs, including, for instance, the famous saying that faith can move mountains.
In this way Krishna relocates the mountain Govardhana to protect its inhabitants from the wrath of the god Indra, and in the Ramayana the monkey god Hanuman carries a mountain to Sri Lanka. No such image was present in the Old Testament traditions.
Attributed to Buddha are many miracles, a number of which are very similar to those described in the New Testament as being performed by Jesus. Buddha and his disciples were invited to attend a wedding in the town of Jambunada. The holy group sat down to a hearty meal, but the food, instead of being rapidly reduced as it was consumed, actually increased in quantity and went on increasing, so that even though more and more guests arrived there was enough for the veritable multitude that was there by the end.
Like Jesus, Buddha was regarded as both divine and human. Before his arrival on Earth Buddha exists as a spiritual being among the divine entities in the spiritual world. Of his own free will he descends to Earth in order to benefit it. Like Christ's, his birth is the result of a miracle: angel messengers proclaim that he will be a saviour, and prophesy to his mother: 'All joy to you, Queen Maya, rejoice and be glad, for the child to whom you have given birth is holy!'
Just as the old and pious Simeon had been told he will see the coming of the Messiah, the birth of the Buddha is prophesied by the saintly old Asita who, shortly before he dies, comes to the newborn child, takes him in his arms and declares:
This is the peerless One, pre-eminent among men
He will attain to the ultimate height of enlightenment. He has knowledge of the supreme Will. It is he who will set the Wheel of Doctrine in motion. He has had compassion on the struggles of humankind. The faith he founds will spread all over the world. (Cf. Luke 2:29-32).
Even relatively cautious scholars are convinced that this speech has a direct precedent [sic] in Buddhism.
At school, the young Siddhartha is somehow already familiar with all kinds of religious texts. He goes off on a short excursion of his own, is missed, and is then found deep in meditation. The parallels with the twelve-year-old Jesus' being discovered in learned debate with scriptural experts in the Temple while his parents have been looking for him are so obvious they cannot be mistaken.
Buddha begins teaching publicly at about the age of thirty, the age at which Christ began to do the same. Like Jesus, Buddha travels the country together with his principal disciples in voluntary poverty, instructing them meanwhile by using vivid imagery and parables. Like Jesus, Buddha has twelve principal disciples, and his first followers are two brothers again in an exact parallel with Jesus' first followers.
When called by Buddha, his first companions are sitting under a fig tree, and it is when sitting under a bo or pipal tree (another species of fig) that Buddha attains enlightenment. To Buddhists the bo tree (Ficus religiosa) remains the most important symbol of the quest for enlightenment. Jesus too first lights upon the disciple Nathanael sitting under a fig tree. Both Buddha and Christ have one favourite disciple and one disciple who betrays him and, like Judas Iscariot, Buddha's enemy Devadatta comes to a wretched end
.
As strongly as Jesus criticizes the Pharisees, the Orthodox Jewish believers who cling steadfastly to the letter of the Mosaic Law, Buddha criticizes the priestly caste of the Brahmans whose orthodoxy has been reduced to meaningless ritual and officious regulations. 'Like arrogant apprentices in a trade they are still learning, the priests are forever widening their web of regulations and are at the root of every evil scheme.' Of the Pharisees, Jesus similarly says, 'They bind heavy burdens and grievous to be borne, and lay them on men's shoulders; but they themselves will not move them with one of their fingers. But all their works they do for to be seen of men' (Matthew 23:4-5). In just the way that Buddha characterizes the Brahmans 'Inside you are like rough wood, though your outer appearance is smooth' Jesus lays open the hypocrisy of the Pharisees: 'You are like unto whited sepulchers, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness' (Matthew 23:27).
Just as Buddha rejects the blood sacrifice performed by some Brahmans, Jesus denounces the blood sacrifice of the Jews. And just as Buddha slates shallow notions of what is pure and what is impure and how ritual ablutions may or may not be efficacious, Jesus censures anything that is insincere and ostentatious.
Kersten (p. 99) claims in fact that "more than one hundred passages in the New Testament" can be thus aligned with Buddhist scriptures.
Ethical Teachings
This section is to be found in Kersten's 'Buddhist Thought in the Teachings of Jesus' (Chapter 5), beginning on p. 99:
Affinities between the ethical teachings of Jesus and of Buddha are well known. Both forbid murder, theft, bearing false witness and illicit sexual relations. Both insist that elders must be held in great respect. Both aim to overcome evil with good. Both preach love of one's enemy. Both value peace of mind and peaceable intent. Both advise against the laying up of futile 'treasures upon earth'. And both advocate mercy for sacrificial victims. The parallels are many, and some texts of both faiths coincide virtually word for word.
Like Jesus, Buddha called himself a 'Son of Man', and just as Jesus may be described as the Light of the World, so Buddha is acclaimed in the titles 'Eye of the World' and 'Incomparable Light'.
Buddha's understanding of himself and his role differs little from Christ's understanding of his own nature and place. 'I know God and the Kingdom of Heaven and the Way that leads there.' And 'Those who believe in me can be sure of salvation.' This is remarkably similar to the promises of Jesus recorded in John's Gospel: 'He that heareth my word, and believeth on him that sent me, hath everlasting life, and shall not come into condemnation; but is passed from death unto life' (John 5:24). And 'He that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live (John 11:25).
Buddha says to his disciples, 'Those who have ears to hear, let them hear'. He performs miracles: the sick are healed, the blind regain their sight, the deaf hear again, and the crippled walk freely. He steps across the Ganges [110] in flood just as Jesus walks across the waters of the lake.
And it is eventually given to Jesus' disciples to perform miracles, just like their predecessors [sic], the disciples of Buddha.
On one occasion Buddha came to the bank of a river. From the opposite bank a disciple who had been unable to find a boat began walking across on top of the water towards him, just as Peter once approached Jesus by walking on the water. And in the same way that Peter began to sink when his faith started to waver, Buddha's disciple began to sink when his meditative concentration on Buddha was disturbed. Peter was saved by the supporting words and arm of Jesus, and Buddha's disciple was saved when he managed to regain his absorption in contemplating the Master. The people who witnessed the individual events were astounded.
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There is one particular story that represents perhaps the most amazing parallel between the older [sic] Buddhist texts and the New Testament. In Christian terms it is the parable of the Widow's Mite. According to the Buddhist version, there is a religious assembly at which the faithful are required to make financial donations. The wealthier members of the congregation give generously and in valuable coin. There is a poor widow, however, whose total possessions amount only to two small coins, and these she duly gives, and with pleasure. The presiding priest perceives her noble gesture and publicly praises her for making it, saying nothing at all about the other donations. .... (Cf Mark 12:41-44).
Apart from the fact that the basic theme is identical in both versions, there are some especially striking coincidental details.
In both versions the story is about a widow. Both make their offering at a religious assembly together with rich people. Both give all they possess, namely two coins. And each is subsequently praised by someone present who values her sacrifice much more highly than the donations of the rich. So close are the versions that it would be difficult to believe that the later [sic] Christian one was somehow invented quite independently of the earlier (Buddhist) one.
Parallels between Buddhism and Christianity are discernible not just in the words and deeds of their founders but also in other aspects of the two religions after their founders' respective deaths.
In both cases the disciples at first fail to establish any organized religious community for the faith, operating instead in small, scattered groups. Quite soon, theological disputes break out between groups with different backgrounds: between Sthaviras and Mahasanghikas, and between Jewish Christians and Hellenist Christians. In both religious Councils are convened, one in Rajagriha, one in Jerusalem
.
At the time Jesus was living in Palestine, the Mahayana school of Buddhism had just evolved from the rather self-oriented Hinayana. It was Mahayana that turned Buddhism into a universal religion, open to believers of every nation and background. Mahayana philosophy focuses on compassion for all beings, as embodied in the ideal of Bodhisattva
. The Bodhisattva is the Enlightened One who defers his merging with the Universal Being, who postpones his entry into nirvana, for as long as it takes for him to lead every person and being into salvation. The earthly existence of Bodhisattva has the single purpose of leading all souls on the path of release (moksha), the path that constitutes liberation from the cycle of rebirths and from the distractions of the world and physicality.
All those qualities that characterize a Bodhisattva are to be found in Jesus, down to the last detail. Jesus is by himself the epitome of the Bodhisattva ideal.
Reincarnation
In his 'Reincarnation in the New Testament' (Chapter 6), beginning on p. 110, Kersten declares that:
Reincarnation is referred to quite specifically several times in the New Testament, although such references are most often ignored or (possibly deliberately) misunderstood. Belief in reincarnation was a matter of course to the early Christian communities, until it became the victim of a historic error perpetrated by the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in AD 533. Declared heretical, it has since remained banned from 'Christian' doctrine to this day
. [500]
It is not difficult to see how one could misconstrue the meaning of the New Testament texts that Kersten gives in support of his argument for reincarnation.
The first ones refer to John the Baptist as going before the Lord 'in the spirit and power of Elias [Elijah]' (Luke 1:17), and Jesus' supporting statement that "this [the Baptist] is Elias, which was for to come" (Matthew 11:14). Kersten immediately follows up these quotes with John's own bald statement that he was not Elijah: "According to John 1:21, when asked by the priests and Levites, the Baptist replies that he is not Elias". Clearly Jesus' statement is meant to be interpreted allegorically; that John the Baptist was an Elijah type; but not the actual Elijah himself, nor a reincarnation of Elijah. Nevertheless, Kersten then barges on to propose that the Baptist may have received his wisdom from India: "It is not inconceivable, therefore, that John too was recognized as a reincarnation of a particularly holy soul, and likewise given direct monastic training in far-off India."
Kersten then proceeds to his next argument:
In the account of Jesus' healing of a man blind from birth (John 9), the disciples expressly ask, 'Master, who did sin, this man, or his parents, that he was born blind?' The idea that someone could have been borne blind because of sin committed previously naturally carries with it the implication of a life lived before and a subsequent rebirth. A further and simultaneous implication in the question is the sublime concept of karma (the Sanskrit term for 'action' or 'causation'), by which the actions undertaken in one life profoundly affect the conditions and circumstances of the next life.
Jesus immediately cuts off any notion of personal karma: "Jesus answered, 'Neither this man nor his parents sinned; he was born blind so that God's work might be revealed in him '." (v.3).
Kersten has also ascribed to the saying of Jesus to Nicodemus that one must be "born again" to see the kingdom of God (John 3:3) the very same literal meaning as did Nicodemus, for which Jesus would have to correct him (v.5).
Finally, according to Kersten:
The clearest reference in the New Testament to reincarnation is found in the Epistle of James (3:6, quoted here in the Jerusalem Bible version), where it says that the tongue 'is a whole wicked world in itself: it infects the whole body; catching fire itself from hell, it sets fire to the whole wheel of creation '. The translation of the last phrase that appears in most English Bibles is 'the course of nature', 'the wheel of our existence', or some equally nebulous expression that distorts the sense of the original Greek words, which literally mean 'cycle of being' or 'wheel of living', and in which the word for 'being' and 'living is genesis, related to the verb 'to come into being', 'to be born' so corresponding exactly to the Indian doctrine of the wheel of rebirth (samsar charka), which is set in flames like the 'cycle of being' of James' Epistle.
My Greek version of this text however does not give genesis, as Kersten says, but the Greek word zoes:  1). Moreover, the Greek noun 'cyclos' can have various meanings, apart from wheel: e.g. circle, circular body, ring, disk, eye, etc. Assuredly James the Apostle did not have reincarnation in mind as the doctrine had no support whatsoever from Jesus Christ, and James was of course prepared to be martyred for his belief in this same Christ (Acts 12:2). Rather than Kersten's view of influences, I suggest that the doctrine of reincarnation probably grew out of a naοve, false interpretation of the New Testament; that it passed from the west to the east, rather than the other way around, being held firstly by the Gnostics - with whose doctrines Kersten finds much resonance (see e.g. his 'Christianity and the Gnostics' pp. 115f.) - and only later reaching the Far East.
1) The `Jerusalem Bible' follows here another variant. The Eberhard Nestle Novum Testamentum Graece reads: 
My previous article, re-identifying and re-dating the supposedly mid-1st millennium Greek philosophers, also puts quite a different perspective on Kersten's view about the Greeks and reincarnation, when he writes (p. 111):
The idea of rebirth was widespread throughout the Graeco-Roman world of classical antiquity. The great Greek [sic] philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (around 570-496 BC), a contemporary of Buddha, was a firm believer in the transmigration of souls, and there are quite a few legends that tell of his traveling to India. Plato (427-347 BC) was likewise a disciple of reincarnation, and rebirth also plays a central role in the philosophy of the Stoics.
CHAPTER FOUR: KRISHNA AS CHRIST
This chapter also forms an important link with my previous article in which I had drawn however only a few comparisons between Jesus and Krishna.
Miracles
The material here will be drawn from Kersten's 'Miracles of Jesus, and in India' (Chapter 6, beginning on p. 122):
for the earliest reports of miracles identical to those performed by Jesus, the prime source comprises the stories of Krishna in the post-Vedic [read post-Old Testament] literature of India, the Puranas (especially the Bhagavata Purana and the Mahabharata). Krishna is the eighth avatar of the god Vishnu, and the majority of Vaishnavite Hindus who worship Vishnu (Sanskrit root vish 'to pervade') as the supreme Lord, his incarnate form Krishna is the Saviour. The Rig Veda is too early a work for Vishnu to be depicted as deity made human, so he is there a manifestation of solar energy. In later Hindu theology, however, Vishnu is the Sustainer of the Universe in the divine Trinity, alongside Brahma the Creator and Shiva the destroyer. An avatar (Sanskrit avatara from ava 'downwards' and tri 'to cross over') represents an incarnate form of God. The divine Higher Being takes on a mortal body out of compassion, in order to help suffering humanity to attain liberation and perfection.
The story of Krishna's birth, childhood and life contains many parallels with accounts of Jesus in the New Testament, even in the details (as for instance in the occurrence early on of a massacre of infants).
Comment: In my previous article, I had actually equated this 'massacre of infants' rather with that of Moses' infancy during the reign of the oppressive 'new pharaoh' than with Jesus' infancy and Herod's murderous jealousy.
Kersten continues:
Krishna and Christ are the two most prominent performers of miracles in the holy scriptures of the Hindus and Christians respectively. Bhagvan Dass divides Krishna's miracles into seven types:
1. the granting of visions;
2. visual perception over an extraordinary distance;
3. the multiplication of small quantities of food or items;
4. appearing simultaneously at many places in a less than fleshly body;
5. the healing of the sick by the laying-on of hands;
6. the raising of the 'dead' to life; and
7. the destruction of demons and the exorcism of the possessed.
Krishna is an avatar a mortal form descended to Earth of the god Vishnu (the second element in the Hindu Trinity, the Sustainer of Creation). It would seem that Krishna and Christ might well have more in common than miracles: it is certainly possible that the two expressions are etymologically cognate.[1600] The title 'Christ' (Latin Christus) comes from the Greek khristos (christos), the 'anointed' (Greek khrein 'to anoint', but also 'to dye', 'to colour'; khrisma 'ointment'). The Sanskrit name krsna (pronounced 'Krishna') means 'the black' or 'the blue'. Both terms, Christus and Krishna, may well also be related to the Sanskrit root krs (pronounced 'krish') 'to attract', and based on this etymology the name Krishna is often translated as 'The all-attracting One'. This person who attracts all Creation is the highest form in which God has been seen on Earth.
Following Brahmin tradition, Brahma is viewed as the Creator of the Universe, and sometimes even called 'Father'. Vishnu, who became incarnate as Krishna, is occasionally called 'Son'. And Shiva, the third Person of the Hindu Trinity, who is Spirit, corresponds thus to the Holy Spirit, 'who directs the eternal law of formation and dissolution, indwelling in all living creatures and all Nature
'
Krishna is the eighth avatar or incarnate form of the god Vishnu, following seven earlier avatars. The ninth appearance of Vishnu on Earth is in the form of Gautama Buddha (Prince Siddhartha, Sakyamuni 'the sage of the Sakyas').
We continue to get more of the same incredible comparisons from Kersten in his 'Krishna and Christ', firstly the Hindu version of the Annunciation (p. 127):
According to the most ancient sources, some 5000 years ago [sic] the Lord Vishnu appeared in the form of a man in the presence of the maiden Devaki ('Made for God'), a member of the royal household. Devaki fell into an ecstasy and was 'overshadowed' by the spirit of God, who came to her in the splendour of his divine majesty, so that she conceived a child. The tradition tells of an annunciation:
Blessed art thou, Devaki, among women. Welcome art thou amid the holy Rishis. Thou hast been chosen for the work of salvation
he will come with a luminous crown: heaven and earth will be full of joy. .. Virgin and Mother, we greet you; thou art the mother of us all, for thou shalt give birth to our Saviour. Thou shalt call him Krishna.
But the King of Mathura had been warned, in what to him was a nightmare, that a king would be born to his sister's daughter, who would be more powerful than he. The maiden Devaki hid in the fields with the newborn child in the company of some cowherds, and miraculously the child escaped the soldiers who had been dispatched by the king to kill all newborn male babies.
According to another version of the tradition, King Kansa of Madurai saw a shooting star and asked a Brahman about its significance. The wise man replied that the world had become wicked, and that people's greed for gold together with their burdensome life had moved God to send a Redeemer. The star was the sign of Vishnu, who had been made flesh in the womb of Devaki; the avatar would one day restore righteousness and lead humanity on new paths. Beside himself with rage, the king had the Brahman killed along with all newborn males.
According to Dan Brown, in The Da Vinci Code, the infant Krishna was brought gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh.
There are many tales of Krishna's childhood, glorying in his power and knowledge.
When he was sixteen, Krishna left his mother to spread his new teaching throughout India. He spoke out against corruption among the people and the princes, everywhere supported the weak against oppression and declared that he had come to Earth to release people from suffering and sin, to drive out the spirit of evil, and to restore the rule of righteousness. He overcame tremendous difficulties, fought alone against entire armies, performed a wide range of miracles, raised the dead to life, healed lepers, gave sight to the blind and hearing to the deaf, and made the lame walk.
Eventually he amassed a large number of disciples, who supported him zealously and were to continue his work. Everywhere people came to hear his teachings and to marvel at the miracles he performed. He was honoured as a god and acclaimed as the true Redeemer who had been prophesied by the fathers.
From time to time Krishna would go off by himself for a while, leaving his disciples to their own devices in order to test them, and returning when they got into difficulties. The growing movement was watched with suspicion by those in authority, and they tried to suppress it, but without success.
Krishna did not wish to propagate a new religion but simply to renew the religion that already existed and cleanse it of all its follies and abuses. His teachings are in the form of poetic parables, aphorisms and similes very like the recorded words of Jesus. They are contained in the Bhagavad Gita, which present the lofty, pure morals of the sublime view of life in a way simple enough for all to grasp. Krishna thus teaches his followers to love their neighbours; he lauds respect for the individual, calling upon all of us to share what we have with the poor, to do good deeds out of pure altruism and righteousness, and to believe in the ever-dependable goodness of the Creator. He instructs us to repay evil with good, to love our enemies, and he forbids revenge. He consoles the weak, condemns tyranny, and helps the unfortunate. He himself lives in poverty and devotes himself to the poor and the downtrodden. He is devoid of personal ties, and advocates chastity.
Krishna does undergo a Transfiguration. The Son of God shows himself in a thousand different divine forms simultaneously to his favourite disciple Arjuna, and tells him,
Who doeth all for Me; who findeth Me
In all; adoreth always; loveth all
Which I have made, and Me, for Love's sole end,
That man, Arjuna! Unto Me doth wend.
(Bhagavad Gita, Canto 11, tr. by Sir Edwin Arnold)
Finally, Krishna allows an arrow to strike him in the foot, marking the end of his ordained life on earth. But when his followers search for his body it is nowhere to be found, for he has ascended to heaven.
Considering this, situation, the man Krishna may have tried to lead people to Jesus Christ for however much he knew about Jesus. In essence it is true, a true religion does not result out of a sea of errors but false religions may result out of neglected truths.
.
Yuz Asaf as Jesus
We now look at the influence of Jesus in Persia and Kashmir. I take up Kersten in his section, 'The Journey to Paradise' (p. 210):
In Parthia [Persia] Jesus was evidently known by the name Yuz Asaf. The meaning of the name is given in the Farhang-i-Asafia, an ancient work recounting the history of Persia, which relates that Jesus (Hazrat Issa) healed some lepers, who were thereafter called Asaf 'the purified' having been cured of their complaint. Yuz means 'leader', so Yuz Asaf can be taken to mean 'leader of the healed', a common epithet for Jesus, and probably alluding to Jesus' mission to cleanse 'impure spirits', and lead all back to true Faith.
The official poet at the court of Akbar, the Moghul Emperor of India, called Jesus Ai Ki Nam-i-to Yus o Kristo, or 'Thou, whose name is Yuz or Christ.' Although the Greek title Christos has assumed various derivative forms that have become established in various languages in the West, in the East it is the name Yuz Asaf that has been preserved down the centuries.
Place-names which apparently commemorate the presence and activity of Jesus are also to be found in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. For example, there are two plains that bear the name of the prophet Yuz Asaf in eastern Afghanistan, near the towns of Ghazni and Jalalabad, to which tradition says Jesus once went.
in a small town called Mari, 70 kilometres east of Taxila (now in Pakistan)
on the border with Kashmir, a grave has been maintained and honoured as far back as anyone can remember, and is known as Mai Mari da Asthan, the 'Final Resting-Place of Mother Mary'.
No fewer than twenty-one references in ancient texts have been found so far to bear witness to Jesus' stay [sic] in Kashmir. Geographical testimony is provided by the names of many towns and places in Kashmir, for instance:
[Kersten lists over 20 such names]
Yus-Marg, Yusnag, Yusu, Yuzu-dha
[etc., etc].
Ishaputra as 'Son of God' &
Isha-Masiha as Lord-Messiah
Kersten tells on p. 220:
The ancient narratives of the Hindus are called Puranas (Sanskrit, purana 'old'). The Purana reports [this proclamation to the king of India]:
'Know that I am Ishaputra [Sanskrit. 'Son of God'], born of a virgin, proclaimer of the teachings of the barbarians [Mleccha], which bear the truth'.
'At the end of the Satya Yuga, the Golden Age, I appeared as Masiha [the Messiah] in the depraved land of the unbelievers
'.
The Sanskrit word Isha means 'Lord' and is used for 'God'. Masiha corresponds to the word 'Messiah'.
China and Japan
Kersten unfortunately does not touch on the question of any Jesus influence in ancient China (or Japan).
However, the possibility that Confucius is a Jesus figure, like Buddha in India, may well be one worth considering in the future, especially given the Buddhist influence in China. According to Kersten (p. 91) "
Buddhism had merged with Shamanist Bon in Tibet, with the philosophies of Taoism and Confucianism in China, and with the Shinto religion in Japan".
CHAPTER FIVE: THE DISCIPLES OF JESUS
Early Missionary Activity - and their influence
Knowledge of Jesus Christ in the Far East would have been spread by the early Christians (perhaps beginning with the Apostle Thomas), and likely later even by the Moslems [1800]. Kersten gives abundant evidence for early Christian missionary activity, e.g. (p. 216):
Even if it were not possible to prove that the apostle Thomas visited India, there is considerable evidence of missionary activity throughout India long before the Muhammedan conquest. Pantainos of Alexandria is said to have stumbled on Matthew's Gospel in Aramaic while on his missionary travels in India in about AD 180.
The Chronicle of Seert (I section 8, para 5) relates that Bishop David of Basra (a contemporary of Metropolitan Papa who died in AD 316) went to India and preached there with great success.
In about the year 355 (as reported later by Philostorgios, before AD 433), the Emperor Constantine sent Bishop Theophilus to India to reform the liturgy and ritual worship of the Church there.
At the end of the fourth century, Symeon of Mesopotamia mentions the martyrdom of Indian 'barbarians' for their Christian faith.
In about AD 490, Bishop Ma'an of Persia sent his writings to India (according to the Chronicle of Seert, II section 9).
And finally Cosmas Indicopleustes has left us a record of a journey to India that he undertook in around AD 525, giving precise geographical details. He found Christians on the island of Sri Lanka, and on the Indian west coast, 'in Male, where the pepper grows [that is, Malabar], and in the place called Kalliana [Kalyan, near Bombay]', and he states that Kalliana was the seat of a bishop who had been to Persia. ....
Essenes, Therapeutae & Nazarenes
The original archaeological impulse with the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Essenes which I believe was the right impulse was to identify these documents as belonging to the early Christians. The original impulse is reflected in the estimation by W. Albright, "one of the most highly qualified American Orientalists", whom Ahmed Osman quotes as writing:
"The new evidence ... bids fair to revolutionize our approach to the beginnings of Christianity" (Out of Egypt, Century, 1998). And Dr. J. Teicher, "himself a Jew and a distinguished Cambridge scholar", went so far as to argue that the scrolls "are quite simply Christian documents". Teicher also maintained - quite rightly I believe - that that the leader of the Essenes, 'The Teacher of Righteousness' himself who met a violent death at the hands of one who was called 'The Wicked Priest', was none other than Jesus Christ.
Osman, too, accepts this Essene/Christian link, and - despite his generally ridiculous primary thesis with its chronological absurdities (e.g. that Tutankhamun was Jesus and Nefertiti was Mary) - he gives the correct identification of the Essenes:
The very name 'Essenes' indicates that they were followers of Jesus. Philo Judaeus, who wrote the earliest account of the sect around AD 30, called them Essaeans, from the Greek Essaios, but made it clear that this was not originally a Greek word. Josephus, who, half a century later, included them among the Jews of his time, called them Essenes, the same term that is used in English. However, it was recognized that the word 'Essene' must have had a Semitic origin. Surprisingly, amid many unsatisfactory suggestions about its source, the obvious one was overlooked - Essa, the Arabic name for Jesus and the name for him used in the Koran. Essaios would therefore mean 'a follower of Essa'.
Kersten, `The Expansion of Buddhism', (Chapter 5), beginning on p. 71, is tied by his own chronology to conclude that the Essenes, the similar Therapeuts (Therapeutae) of Alexandria, and the Nazarenes (a term that he insists pertains to Nazarites, rather than to Nazareth), were followers of an ancient Buddhism, instead of the obvious view as given by Dr. Teicher that they were "quite simply Christian". Kersten though does not claim that these groups were known by the term 'Buddhist'. In his discussion of this, particularly in regard to the Therapeuts, he brings in a most interesting connection between the Buddhist concept of Dharma and the Christian one from Greek of the Logos; though inevitably he gives precedence to the former (p. 115f.):
The followers of the Buddha in Alexandria during the decades either side of Jesus' birth, if there were any, certainly did not call themselves Buddhists. Instead, they probably would have used the name adopted by their brothers in India: the followers of the Dharma (the Universal Law and the teaching of Buddha). In Greek, the word Dharma may be translated as Logos, 'Word'
.
The famous introduction to John's Gospel 'In the beginning was the Word
' thus has a literary form that is by no means unlike a quotation from the Buddhist scriptures, 'The essence [of all things] is the Dharma
', especially in that Greek word used for 'beginning', arche, can have other meanings, notably 'origin', 'principle' and 'mastery' and that the Greek imperfect form of the verb 'to be' translated simply as 'was' suggests a continuation of the action through to the present.[2000]
The most sacred authority in Buddhism is the trinity represented by Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. Christian theology has the Holy Trinity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, of whom the Son, the second Person, is equated with the Logos (that is to say the Dharma), and the third Person, the Holy Spirit, is active in the community of the faithful (the Sangha).
the Chinese equivalent was the trinity of Heaven, Earth and the human individual made perfect (represented by the Emperor, the Son of Heaven).
.
The Desert Christians
Had not Jesus warned his followers to escape from Jerusalem to the mountains when the time of punishment for the Jews who had rejected him drew near, with "Jerusalem surrounded by armies?" (Luke 21:20). They were able to do this with Vespasian's subsequent withdrawal to return to Rome, before sending his son Titus back to finish off the job in 70 AD.
I now take up Kersten on p. 76:
The community of the Essenes lived in caves that had been excavated in the rock walls of the Qaratania mountains beside the Dead Sea, opposite the ancient town of Jericho. At exactly the same time [sic], Buddhist monks were living in caves cut into the rocky cliffs of the mountains and heights along India's west coast, and centering on a temple cave (Chaitya).
Like the Buddhist monks, the Essenes and Therapeuts lived in celibate monastic communities a way of life that was itself a novelty in the Mediterranean area, for no religious observance like it had been seen there before. They devoted their lives to a search for knowledge of God, and strove to attain it by means of protracted fasts and periods of silence.
Philo mentions that the Essenes stayed away from the bloody rituals performed in the Temple at Jerusalem because they were strongly opposed to animal sacrifice. The Essene religion may well in fact have been instituted as a protest against such gory elements of Jewish orthodoxy and against the rigid severity of the Mosaic Law. A similar development had taken place several centuries earlier [sic] in India, after all, when the Buddha protested against Brahmin rules and rituals which had lost their meaning.
The Essene community was made up of monks and lay persons, like the Buddhist Sangha. The monastic community led a communally organized ascetic life in their all but inaccessible caves in the mountains around Jericho, where it was possible for them to live well away from the Orthodox Jewish groups
.. The lay members of the Essenes lived in villages and towns, where they married and brought up children, and strove to lead a pious, pure, spiritual life.
As is still the practice in many Buddhist countries, the lay families often gave up their firstborn son to be a monk in the cave monastery.
The word Therapeut means 'one who ministers', and therefore 'healer', and the Therapeut community on the outskirts of Alexandria was no doubt influenced by the presence of Buddhist monks [sic]. The Buddhist monks were also called healers or physicians. The Therapeuts (Therapeutae) used to sit on reed mats, as was the tradition of Buddhist monks in India, and their custom of baptizing novices at their initiation into monkhood was also taken from Buddhism [sic]. They consumed neither meat nor wine, lived in voluntary poverty, fasted at set times, continually recited and sang religious texts and hymns, and clothed themselves in white robes.
Much of a Therapeut's life was passed in silent meditation and the rituals of worship.
I now take up an interesting section on the Therapeuts from Professor Constantine Scouteris (of the University of Athens)'s "The Therapeutae of Philo and the Monks as Therapeutae according to Pseudo-Dionysius"
(http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/patrology/scouteris_theraputae.htm)
In his De Vita Contemplativa the Alexandrian Philo makes an extremely remarkable description of an ascetic community with which he was familiar and which was settled not far from Alexandria, namely above Lake Mareotis. Philo's intention in this treatise is not to give an idealized account of what he himself describes as `aesapeuph' but rather to sketch the way of life of a specific monastic community of Egyptian Jewish ascetics. At the very beginning of his treatise, Philo notes the substantial contrast between the Therapeutae and another Jewish ascetic sect, the Essenes. The Essenes led a more practical and active life, while the Therapeutae were dedicated to contemplative life. One could observe also other differences between the two ascetic traditions. The Essenes were exclusively male communities while women participated in the communal gatherings of the Therapeutae communities. Although the Essene's highly organized communal life involved great frugality, there is no conclusive evidence that it denied the lawfulness of marriage. The ascetic tradition of the Therapeutae, on the other hand, insisted on absolute sexual abstinence. The Therapeutae did not practice the Essene communistic way of life but lived separately as anchorites. They practiced renunciation of property, living a life of severe discipline, fasting and praying daily according to an established horarium. As regards theological method, they were enthusiasts of the allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament.
It is not the intention of this paper to present a detailed account of the differences between the Essenes and the Therapeutae, but rather to observe the contemplative life of the pre-Christian monastic community of the Therapeutae and to compare it with the angelic life as described in the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy of Pseudo-Dionysius.
It should be pointed out from the very outset that Philonian monachism has been seen as the forerunner of and the model for the Christian ascetic life. It has even been considered as the first picture of Christian monasticism. Such an identification can already be found in Eusebius of Caesarea. In his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius, referring first to apostolic foundations of the Church of Alexandria by St. Mark, points out that Philo's Therapeutae were the first Christian monks. He sees in their renunciation of property, in their chastity of life, in their severe fasting, in their solitary lives, in their devotion to scriptural reading and in other aspects of their ascetic life, the Christian monks. Eusebius was so certain that Philo was describing the life of the first Christian monks that he argues that Philo himself, not only knew the life of the first Christian ascetics, but also had himself adopted it.
It is true that there are considerable similarities between the Therapeutae and the way of life of the first Christian monks of Egypt, especially those of the Nitria Desert. It is for precisely this reason that until the end of the eighteenth century Eusebius' position was widely accepted among Christian scholars. Another deduction, derived from the striking similarities already noted, was that of the Strasbourgian scholar Lucius, at the end of the last century. He insisted that the De Vita Contemplativa was not, in fact, Philo's work, but that of an unknown Christian author of the third century.
Interesting though it may be, Lucius' position can be dismissed since Massebieau and Conybeare have definitively proved the authenticity of the Philonian authorship of the De Vita Contemplativa. What is indisputable is the fact that in Philo's presentation one finds basic trends of early Christian monasticism. The semianchoritic character of the Therapeutae community, the renunciation of property, the solitude during the six days of the week and the gathering together on Saturday for the common prayer and the common meal, the severe fasting, the keeping alive of the memory of God, the continuous prayer, the meditation and study of Holy Scripture were also practices of the Christian anchorites of the Alexandrian desert.
In his attempt to clarify their vocation in connection with the title reserved to them, Philo makes the following observation:
The vocation of these philosophers is at once made clear from their title of Therapeutae and Therapeutrides, a name derived from £e$apeγf either in the sense of "cure", because they profess an art of healing superior to that practiced in the cities which cures only bodies, while their's treats also souls oppressed by grievous and well nigh incurable diseases, inflicted by pleasures and desires and griefs and fears, by acts of covetousness, folly and injustice, and the countless hosts of other passions and vices; or else in the sense of "worship" because nature and the sacred laws have schooled them to worship the Selfexistent, Who is better than the Good, purer than the One, and more primordial than the Monad.
Pseudo-Dionysius in his Ecclesiastical Hierarchy takes up Philo's basic points in order to speak about the Christian monastic vocation. We should note that Pseudo-Dionysius is one of the very few Christian writers to actually use the term Therapeutae when referring to the monks. He even preserves the information that the term was in common use:
"Some people gave to the ascetics the name Therapeutae or servants while some others gave them the name monks".
Although both Philo and Pseudo-Dionysius use the same name "Therapeutae" to describe the monastic vocation, there are substantial differences between the understanding of Philo and that of Pseudo-Dionysius. In Philo's interpretation, one realizes that the ascetics described by him in the De Vita Contemplativa were persons who "professed an art of healing superior to that practiced in the cities". Their art of healing derives from the simplicity of their way of life. Escaping the noise of the city, they embrace the natural way, living in the gardens, enjoying the fresh air and the calm and beauty of the countryside. Apart from that, they have the opportunity to practice inner solitude, not because they are misanthropes, but because they are aware that "in every city, even the best governed, is full of turmoils and disturbances innumerable which no one could endure who has ever been once under the guidance of wisdom".
The freedom from every necessity and the natural way of living is understood in the Philonian text as a way of healing. It is precisely and basically for this reason that the ascetics were called by Philo "Therapeutae".
In the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy of Pseudo-Dionysius, we find a quite different interpretation. The monks are called "Therapeutae" because they have freely dedicated themselves to the service of God. Here e$apea is understood as duty and service to God. The Christian monks have a specific orientation, i.e., to be servants and worshippers of God. It is true that the idea of service is also mentioned by Philo but assigned a secondary importance. The ascetics are named Therapeutae primarily because they practice the art of healing.
Already the etymological issue, i. e. the differentiation, regarding the meaning of the word "Therapeutae", leads us to understand that, despite the use of the common term, the Philonian and Dionysian visions are absolutely different. The monastic vocation in Philo's De Vita Contemplativa derives all its strength from the monks' ascetic endeavors. Its inspiration and accomplishments are those of, admittedly dedicated and serious persons; but they are still limited by the human condition. Philo's monks possess and profess an art of healing derived entirely from their own ascetic labors. According to Pseudo-Dionysius' approach, the monastic vocation has God as its foundation and final goal. In this sense monastic life is a desire toward God's life. Pseudo-Dionysius makes his points clear when he writes that the Christian ascetics are called "therapeutae" and "monks": Because of the purity of their duty and service to God and because their lives, far from being scattered, are monopolized by their unifying.
The second observation is related to the term "monk" itself. Pseudo-Dionysius takes up again Philo's idea concerning the "One" and the "Monad" in order to interpret the term "nozay»c". In Philo's De Vita Contemplative we find the point that the monks "worship the Selfexistent who is better than the Good, purer than the One and more primordial than the Monad". According to Pseudo-Dionysius the monks are named nozayo as well, because their constant struggle is orientated toward the undivided and unified life. The author of the Areopagite text following the Eastern patristic theology understands sin as disruption, as something which introduces discord and division. Pseudo-Dionysius defines the destructive character of sin as "an inharmonious mingling of discordant elements". Christian life in general and monastic vocation in particular is an effort to restore in every human being the unique life of God. In the final analysis the life of God is a life of unity and the monastic vocation is, in fact, a unifying.
But in studying the De Vita Contemplativa of Philo and comparing it to the data concerning the monastic vocation given by Pseudo-Dionysius in his Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, one can discern a third very substantial difference. In the Dionysian exposition there is a strong ecclesiological perspective. Those dedicated to the monastic life are, not simply philosophers or therapeutae in the Philonian sense, but are serving God within the body of the Church. This means that monastic perfection is realized, not via an abstract and autonomous life of contemplation, but indeed in the Church. The monastics, as therapeutae, have a specific function to fulfill which has been understood as an ecclesiastical service.
The ecclesiastical character of the monastic vocation is presented by Pseudo-Dionysius with what he says about the "mystery of the consecration of a monk". It should be noted once more here that monks are considered by Pseudo-Dionysius as having a specific gift and place within the ecclesiastical hierarchy.
It is interesting to see how the Areopagite describes this consecration:
The priest stands before the divine altar and chants the invocation for a monk. The person being initiated stands behind the priest and does not kneel on either one or both knees. The divinely scriptures are not put on his head. He simply stands while the priest chants the secret invocation over him. When this is finished, the priest approaches the initiate. First he asks if he will not only renounce his doubleminded way of living, but even refuse every fantasy (which could be a destruction to his way of life). He reminds him of the rules governing a fully perfect life and openly asserts that he must surpass the median way of life. After the initiate has devoutly promised to do all this, the priest makes the sign of the cross on him. He cuts his hair and invokes the three Persons of the divine blessedness. He takes away all his clothes and gives him others. Then together with all the other sacred men present at the ceremony, he gives him the kiss (of peace) and confers on him the right to commune in the divine Mysteries.
Pseudo-Dionysius presents a detailed explanation of every symbolic action of a consecration of a monk. It is not within the purview of this paper to provide a detailed commentary. The only thing we wish to underline is the fact that after the completion of the consecration, the neophyte partakes of the holy Eucharist.
The participation in the Eucharist has evident ecclesiological significance. It is a living testimony that the monks form an integral part of the Church. Their way and their vocation is under the blessing of the Church. According to Pseudo-Dionysius, their life is not an extraecclesial spiritual activity, but is indeed ecclesial life. In the Philonian presentation the absence of such a perspective is striking. One realizes that the Therapeutae were a body of ascetics whose integration within the fold of Judaism was extremely tenuous. In the Pseudo-Dionysian understanding, the art of the ascetic life is the art of the Church herself. Their art leads through purification, illumination and perfection to divine communion. The final goal of the monk's life, as well as the common goal of all Christians, is to "be partakers of the divine nature" (II Peter I:4).
We can now summarize by saying only that Pseudo-Dionysius, to describe the monastic vocation, used the Philonian way of thinking with all its Platonic background. But behind the similar language, one can easily remark the substantial difference between Philo and Pseudo-Dionysius. The contribution of Pseudo-Dionysius lies in the fact that, not only has he not rejected Philo's thought, but he enriched it with a distinctly Christian attitude. Or to put it differently. Pseudo-Dionysius' purpose was to present the Christian teaching concerning the monastic way; and he did so using the Philonian language, symbols and categories. [End of quote].
Now back to Kersten on pp. 77-78, for a mention of the Nazarenes, and their equation with the Essenes:
The Essenes both the monks up in the mountains and the lay members down in the towns tended to occupy themselves with agriculture and manual crafts. The Qumran Scrolls relate how both communities expectantly awaited an imminent end of life on Earth, striving to prepare themselves for a future life with God by evincing brotherly love for one another and for humanity in general, and by doing good deeds. The Essenes discerned eight stages of spiritual growth, rather like the Eightfold Path of the Buddhists [3000], and the aim of these (again as in Buddhism) was to reach a higher plane of existence and to attain Enlightenment.
The Synoptic Gospels tell how Jesus instructed his disciples to travel about on foot, staff in hand (like some Hindu monks), and to minister to the people
.
According to Epiphanius of Constantia (Salamis), the Essenes were also called Nazarene Nazarenos or Nazoraios.
Despite Kersten's own unconvincing view about the meaning of this term, Nazarene, it is to my mind a further confirmation of the connection between the Essenes and Jesus of Nazareth (or the Nazarene).
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of the New Age Movement, which became so popular in the later 1960's, tries to unify many streams of attitudes, beliefs and persuasions.
